Volume 21 No° 1-2 - Voluntary Initiatives Find out more about DTIE's work with Voluntary Initiatives through Industry Outreach

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Volume 21 No.1-2
January - June 1998
Pages: 111 pages
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Table of Contents

Voluntary Initiatives

1. Editorials
2. Voluntary initiatives for responsible entrepreneurship: a question and answer guide
3. Voluntary Industry Codes of Conduct for the Environment (UNEP Technical Report N° 40)
4. Environmental Agreements: the European Commission's policy and programme – by Peter Dröll
5. OECD work on the role of voluntary approaches in environmental policy - by Jean-Philippe Barde
   
   
6. Environmental Agreements in the European Union: some views of the environmental movement - by John Hontelez
7. Business makes the case for voluntary initiatives – by Björn Stigson 
8. Responsible action or public relations? NGO perspectives on voluntary initiatives – by Jeffrey Barber
9. The ICC Business Charter for Sustainable Development and other voluntary initiatives: more relevant than ever in a globalizing world – by Norine Kennedy
10. US EPA's Partners for the Environment - by Rebecca Nachtrieb
    
    
11. Environmental agreements in the Netherlands: sharing the responsibility for sustainable industrial development – by Maarten de Hoo
12. The power of partnerships in Canada: how industry and government work together for economic growth and a cleaner environment – by Linda L.Dunn
13. BHP New Zealand Steel's Voluntary Agreement to reduce CO2 emissions - by Steve Holehouse
14. Sharing responsibility: co-regulatory policy instruments as a means of achieving industrial sustainable development in South Africa and other developing countries – by Jonathon Hanks
15. The development of voluntary initiatives in South Africa - by Karin Ireton
    
    
16. The role of voluntary agreements in Germany – by Klaus Kabelitz
17. Japanese Initiatives to solve environmental problems through private sector measures - by Kozo Uchida
18. Responsible Care® in action – by Hugo Lever
19. The chemical industry's Responsible Care® programme viewed from an international trade union perspective - by Reg Green
20. Research initiative on industrial transformation launched by IHDP – by Larry R. Kohler
    
    
21. Evaluating companies' environmental reports in Germany – by Jens Clausen and Klaus Fichter
22. Développer un programme volontaire d'éco-efficacité de l'énergie pour lutter contre l'effet de serre: l'exemple d'Usinor – by René-François Bizec
23. Iniciativas voluntarias de gestión ambiental en Colombia: participación de la Asociación Nacional de Industriales (ANDI) – by Angela Gómez Rodríguez

Other Topics - Autres Sujet - Otros Tópicos

24. Energy efficient and environmentally sound industrial technologies in Asia Part I: Assessment of the economic viability of technological options – by B. Mohanty, C. Visvanathan and G. Senanayake
25. Emissions reduction activities and the Clean Development Mechanism: key unresolved issues – by Anilla Cherian
26. Cleaner brick production in India: a trans-sectoral initiative – by Arun Kumar, Geeta Vaidyanathan and K.R. Lakshmikantan

Newsletters - Bulletins - Boletines

27. The APELL Newsletter N°17 (PDF - 68KB)
28. Cleaner Production N°14 (PDF - 133KB)
29. EnTA
30. Tourism Focus N°10 (PDF - 210KB))

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31. World News
32. Industry Updates
33. UNEP focus
34. Books and reports
35. Web site highlight

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Abstracts

Editorial

Voluntary initiatives: improving environmental performance and helping achieve sustainability

Voluntary approaches and initiatives have been used increasingly over the last five years, by industry and governments, as a policy tool to improve environmental performance and help achieve sustainability. They have ranged from commitments by individual companies to achieve environmental targets that go beyond existing regulations, to codes of conduct adopted unilaterally at the national or international level by sectoral industry associations, to agreements on environmental performance targets between a government and a company, group of companies or industry sector.

There are a number of advantages for industry in the use of voluntary approaches. These include greater flexibility concerning ways and means of reaching targets, and the opportunity to present a better public image.

For governments, the benefits of voluntary approaches include their usefulness in promoting dialogue with the private sector and in raising industry managers' awareness of environmental issues. They can serve as tools to push industry's environmental performance and resource productivity beyond previously agreed regulatory targets. Such voluntary activities can promote innovation and limit enforcement costs.

Non-governmental organizations also recognize that appropriate use of voluntary initiatives can be desirable. However, they generally insist on the importance of establishing measureable targets, of involving employees and NGOs in setting and implementing these targets, of reporting on progress, and of third party verification.

UNEP's contribution to the debate has included the analysis of voluntary actions already undertaken and the lessons that can be learned from them. Among other outcomes, this work has resulted in a publication on the role of voluntary programmes to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and a report on voluntary industry codes of conduct for the environment. The report highlights the "five C's" - elements that are of critical importance if voluntary approaches are to be effective. They are:

- Commitment. The political will to achieve effective implementation is indispensable on the part of those taking part.

- Content. Targets must be meaningful.

- Cooperation. Voluntary initiatives need to be prepared with the full involvment of the stakeholders concerned.

- Checking. Monitoring of implementation and of results is essential

- Communication. Successful communication includes reporting to the public on results, as well as listening to feedback.

Voluntary approaches are clearly not the only means of addressing environmental problems. It is important to remember that they are intended to be complementary to other environmental policy instruments (e.g. regulations, economic instruments). Their purpose is not to replace these instruments.

The UN's Commission on Sustainable Development, at its sixth session in April 1998, noted the value of voluntary initiatives and agreements in providing content and direction to dialogue between governments and the representatives of industry, trade unions, NGOs and international organizations.

UNEP hopes this special double issue of the Industry and Environment review, building on previous work, will be a useful contribution to this process.

Voluntary initiatives for responsible entrepreneurship: a question and answer guide

          Lack of a common language and understanding is one of the most important barriers to the appropriate use of voluntary initiatives. This "question and answer guide" therefore provides an overview of the different types of voluntary initiatives being used and a list of sources of further information.

UNEP's experience with the use of voluntary initiatives to improve companies' environmental performance dates back to long before the 1992 Earth Summit. Sharing of experience and information concerning voluntary initiatives takes place through regular consultations with a wide range of industry associations, multi-stakeholder discussions, publications and guidelines such as Voluntary Industry Codes of Conduct for the Environment, The Role of Voluntary Programmes in Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions (a joint UNEP/US EPA publication), and Environmental Codes of Conduct for Tourism, and the integration of voluntary initiatives in UNEP's cleaner production, ozone protection, energy and other activities.

1. WHAT IS A "VOLUNTARY" INITIATIVE?
   
   

   "Voluntary" initiatives is a general term that collectively refers to:
   - voluntary agreements
   - voluntary programmes
   - voluntary standards
   - voluntary codes of conduct, guidelines, principles, statements, policies, etc. of a company, industry, government or third party.

             To date, there is no one consistent use of these terms. Especially in a global context, the same term may be used to mean quite different things. A voluntary agreement in the Netherlands, for example, usually refers to a formal, negotiated, legally binding contract (covenant) between government and industry in which all companies are expected to participate. In the United States, on the other hand, a voluntary agreement is taken to mean a non-binding voluntary programme in which companies decide individually whether and when they want to participate.

             Even within a country the same term may be used to mean quite different things. A company or industry voluntary programme, for example, is quite different from a government voluntary programme. Different uses, definitions and interpretations of the same terminology is often the first barrier to a common understanding among stakeholders of the appropriate use of voluntary initiatives. Descriptions of different types of industry, government, and joint industry-government and third party voluntary initiatives are given below, in order to help bring about a clearer understanding of the main types of voluntary initiatives.

             In the context of responsible entrepreneurship, "voluntary" refers to industry behaviour that goes beyond existing environmental laws and regulations. A voluntary initiative may nevertheless be:
   
   - legally-binding, in the case of a signed, contractual agreement, and thus enforceable (in theory) if broken;
   - mandatory, if it becomes a condition for membership in an industry association (e.g. some Responsible Care associations);
   - compulsory, if it becomes a de facto market requirement (e.g. ISO 14000) or when, as in countries with an established consensus-based approach, it has the same weight as traditional regulations (e.g. German self-commitments);
   - used to encourage compliance to existing laws

    

   "Voluntary initiatives may range from initiatives where parties set their own targets and often do their own monitoring and reporting, to initiatives where a contract is made between a public body (e.g. a particular level of government, a citizens' organization, or a non-governmental or environmental group) and a private party (an industry association or a particular company)" Conference Board of Canada, 1996

   
   

2. WHY ARE VOLUNTARY INITIATIVES BECOMING POPULAR?

   Experimentation with voluntary initiatives (predominantly in North America, Europe and Japan) is a result of two converging trends that are becoming familiar in many other countries. These are:
   
   - the growing importance of the private sector, and the need to foster long-term changes in the business culture in order to meet the challenges of global sustainable development;
   
   - the evolution of environmental policy. The evolution towards more voluntary forms of environmental policy reflects the growing understanding that legislation cannot prescribe the kind of innovative responses needed from the business community to meet sustainable development challenges. While a sound regulatory framework is needed to establish discharge and emission limits, other methods are needed to encourage companies to shift from treatment methods to cleaner production and sustainable development strategies wherever they operate.
   

   What is responsible entrepreneurship? In a 1998 policy paper submitted to the Commission of Sustainable Development, UNEP broadly defined responsible entrepreneurship as a three-stage process: Stage 1: Compliance with national law. Basic compliance with national environmental, health and safety standards and regulations. Public disclosure, when required, of regulated emissions, adoption of voluntary charters or codes of conduct promoted by industry associations but with little monitoring/reporting of implementation. A frequent business perception of environmental issues as an expense rather than an opportunity. An ad-hoc reaction to environmental accidents and risks. Active lobbying to avoid any new regulation. Stage 2: Compliance and eco-efficiency. A more proactive approach to sustainable development typically demonstrated through activities that are economically viable (eco-efficiency). Setting of quantified objectives and targets for environmental performance. A continual improvement framework of an environmental management system, monitoring and reporting of implementation of voluntary codes of conduct by industry associations. Operating standards similar in all parts of the world. Work with suppliers to improve environmental performance (supply chain management). Publication of environmental reports with quantified data. Limited reporting on social issues. Openness to dialogue with governments and NGOs Stage 3: Compliance, eco-efficiency, and strategic redefinition of business. A redefinition of company strategies and policies to include the "triple bottom line" of sustainable development, economic prosperity, environmental quality and social equity. This is applied in all divisions of the company (marketing, purchasing, product design, advertising...), and in all operations worldwide. Redesign of process, products and services to integrate the 'triple bottom line'. Active partners in the development/implementation of international agreements/conventions. Full recognition of the 'public right to know' and 'precautionary principle. Development of sustainability indicators, in consultation with stakeholders, used for bench marking performance (environmental, economic and social) within and between industry sectors. Sustainable development reporting including reporting against global operating standards. Social audits. Transparency, openness, and active contribution to unbiased dialogue with all stakeholders.

   
   

3. WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF VOLUNTARY INITIATIVES?
   
   Frequently cited benefits of successful voluntary initiatives are:
   
   - long-term cultural changes in business management; greater industry motivation, innovation and flexibility in meeting environmental goals; a shift from reactionary, end-of-pipe, and financial-cost attitudes to proactive, cleaner production, economic-savings behaviour;
   
   - improved dialogue and trust between industry and government, and industry and the public, leading to more cooperative relationships and greater regulatory certainty;
   
   - better suitability than regulations in rapidly changing or complex contexts, offering more ambitious goals, lowering administrative and enforcement costs, and faster implementation than legislation.

4. WHAT ARE THE LIMITS OF VOLUNTARY INITIATIVES?
   
   Not all voluntary initiatives have the same capacity to realize these advantages and meet their objectives. Some voluntary initiatives apply only to certain environmental areas where technology choices such as energy conservation and efficiency are available. Some will work well only in homogenous industries with a small membership of large companies or whose common interests prevail over internal competitive pressures and short-term needs. In heterogeneous industries with a large number of small and medium-sized enterprises the success of voluntary initiatives may be limited to little more than raising environmental awareness. Many voluntary initiatives may fail unless backed up by traditional regulations or other policy tools. Most will require government to adapt traditional functions to new challenges, such as verifying implementation, identifying free riders, etc. Most voluntary initiatives will require a certain amount of already existing trust and cooperation between industry and government before they can work and foster public confidence.
   
             All voluntary initiatives share certain limits. In particular, voluntary initiatives cannot, on their own:
   
   - be applied in areas where there is no business self-interest. The voluntary approach is limited to areas where business can see self-interest in voluntarily changing behaviour (e.g. cost-effectiveness, public recognition, avoidance of future regulations, etc.);
   
   - deal with free riders. Voluntary measures are unable to incite all companies to invest in environmental protection and cannot, on their own, deal with negligent or consistently poor performers;
   
   - set or enforce emission limits or discharge requirements for individual facilities.
   
   - Ensure global application. Voluntary measures will need to be developed and applied differently in different cultural and socio-economic contexts. This makes it difficult to ensure that voluntary environmental commitments are equally met globally.
   
             This clearly demonstrates that, like regulations and economic instruments, voluntary initiatives have their own limits and shortcomings; they are clearly not a panacea for sustainable development. Voluntary initiatives are but one tool in a policy toolbox. They complement, not replace legislation and regulations, economic measures, information and other policy tools.

5. WHAT KINDS OF VOLUNTARY INITIATIVES ARE THERE?
   
   Voluntary initiatives vary in form, substance, and, ultimately, in their effectiveness. The rich diversity of voluntary initiatives is essential in meeting the different needs of an industry's or country's socio-economic context and stage of responsible entrepreneurship. But it also makes difficult a tidy classification of voluntary initiatives.
   
   A wide range of criteria have been identified to help distinguish the different types of voluntary initiatives. They include, for example:
   
   - goals and targets
   
   Are the goals general (e.g. continuous improvement) or specific, and do they have time frames and targets?
   
   - voluntary nature
   
   Is there an implicit threat of regulation if the voluntary goals are not met? Are there any direct or indirect sanctions if a company does not comply with the voluntary agreement?
   
   - legal nature
   
   Are parties legally required to meet the terms of the voluntary initiative? Are future governments legally obliged to meet previous governments' voluntary agreements with industry?
   
             Rather than defining the different types of voluntary initiatives, it may be more helpful to describe the key types by determining whose initiative it is, that is, who holds the management responsibilities for ensuring that a voluntary initiative is actually implemented by companies. Four key types of voluntary initiatives then emerge:
   
   - industry initiatives;
   - government initiatives;
   - joint government/industry initiatives;
   - third-party initiatives.
   
             These four types are summarized in Table 1 and described in the next four sections.

6. WHAT ARE INDUSTRY VOLUNTARY INITIATIVES?
   
   The first category of voluntary initiatives consists of those that have been unilaterally developed by industry. Industry "owns" the initiative, and has exclusive management responsibilities for its implementation, including monitoring, verification, and public communication functions. Government authorities may officially or unofficially recognize the voluntary initiative, and non-governmental organizations or public groups may be consulted, but all decisions (e.g. objectives, goals, time frames, and, if any, monitoring, reporting, evaluation) rest with the company or industry association. Some industry initiatives may become mandatory as in the case of a membership condition (e.g. Responsible Care in Canada) or an essential market requirement, but all are voluntary in the sense that they are not required by existing regulations or laws.
   
             These initiatives may be individual or collective:
   
   - individual company initiatives. Companies internally set their own environmental goals (to be voluntary, by definition they must go beyond legal compliance), independently determine when and how they will be reached, and control any monitoring or public reporting processes. Leadership company programmes help raise the industry standard and may provide benchmarks for more industry-wide programmes. Examples include corporate environmental management systems, corporate environmental policy, guidelines, principles or codes of conduct, corporate environmental programmes, corporate environmental reports, etc. (Table 2).
   
   - collective industry initiatives. These are generally industry association initiatives, but they may also be initiatives of two or more companies that formally or informally come together to promote better industry environmental performance (e.g. Global Environmental Management Initiative, Public Environmental Reporting Initiative). They lay down general principles for environmental protection, ideally providing some form of follow-up to ensure that these principles are implemented. They may be either cross sector or industry specific.
   
             Cross-sector initiatives provide broad, general guidelines or qualitative objectives (e.g. continuous improvement, best practice) for an often diffuse and heterogeneous membership. They may provide essential leadership for industry sector branches but in being unable or unwilling to set specific environmental goals or targets, their real effectiveness is usually difficult to measure.
   
             Industry-specific initiatives offer the potential to translate qualitative objectives into quantifiable goals and targets for specific industries, although to date, only a few leadership industry associations, mostly with a membership of large companies have done so (e.g. chemical and petroleum associations).

7. WHAT ARE GOVERNMENT VOLUNTARY INITIATIVES?
   
   The second category of voluntary initiatives consists of those that are developed and run by government. Government authorities determine the environmental need(s) and set the goals for industry to meet, providing the necessary structure and incentives for individual companies to participate. Industry or leadership companies may be consulted or involved in the design of the programme, but the general running of the programme, its monitoring and evaluation functions come under the responsibility of a government department or government-sponsored institute. Government voluntary programmes are more likely than industry initiatives to have specific targets and time frames. They may be industry-specific or cross-sector (e.g. energy efficiency, reduction of the harm from toxic substances). They are not legally binding or enforceable, and generally carry no implicit threat of regulation if objectives are not met (Table 3).
   
             Key types of government voluntary programmes are:
   
   - challenge programmes: participants are challenged by government or their industry to achieve specific environmental targets or performance goals The programme becomes a motivator and facilitator and encourages cooperation and information sharing among competitors.
   
   - technology upgrade programmes: participants are encouraged to undertake a specific category of technology improvement such as installing energy-efficient lighting systems in buildings. It is most appropriate when a very specific opportunity has been identified that provides significant cost savings but has not been implemented due to an identified barrier (e.g. informational, motivational barriers).
   
   - ecolabelling programmes: products (or services) are labelled to designate that they are environmentally friendly, energy efficient, cost effective or a combination of these attributes. This helps consumers easily recognize and choose technologies that benefit the environment.
   
   - regulatory relief programmes: in exchange for superior environmental performance and stakeholder accountability, these programmes offer companies or industry sectors simplified environmental permitting, exemption from existing environmental regulations or taxes (in Denmark participating companies are reimbursed CO2 tax), or the promise of a "stable" regulatory climate during the period of agreement.
   
   - award or prize programmes: these are voluntary programmes that provide rewards (e.g. public recognition, financial awards) to stimulate good performance. They may be offered at local as well as national or regional levels and so may be targeted at SMEs as well as large companies. Local authorities in Brussels, for example, find prizes more appropriate than voluntary agreements in stimulating printers, garages, car body shops, dry cleaners, and other service-oriented small and medium-sized enterprises.
   
   - R&D/innovation programmes: these programmes are most useful when there is a need to encourage industry to develop advanced or more commercially viable technologies that large or long term investments.

8. WHAT ARE JOINT GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY VOLUNTARY INITIATIVES?
   
   The third category of voluntary initiatives consists of those that are jointly developed by government and industry, usually involving some form of negotiations and the sharing of management responsibilities such as monitoring and evaluation (Table 4). The terms most commonly used to describe such initiatives are "covenants" and "voluntary agreements".
   
   - Covenants are "voluntary agreements concluded between a number of actors (including different levels of government and representatives of industry) with the status of binding contracts in civil law. Covenants are being used within industry as implementation instruments in areas where legislation already exists and government can exercise control e.g. through issuing licenses. In such cases, covenants serve as a management tool by providing a concrete implementation programme with, a more general legal framework; they are not an alternative to regulation and do not take precedence over existing law." (Dutch Ministry of the Environment, 1993).
   
   - Voluntary agreements "generally consist of an agreement between industry and public authorities concerning environmental goals to be met by industry within a specified time frame. The most common distinctions made are between those voluntary agreements, which are non-binding, "gentlemen's agreements" and those which are contractual, and contain specific control measures (e.g. monitoring and reporting requirements). However, distinctions here can be unclear. In Germany, public authorities cannot be signatories to a VA because it is considered unconstitutional to negotiate environmental policy. Thus German voluntary agreements are self-commitments (Selbstverpflichtungen) by industry, yet derived in consultation with public authorities. Because of the regulatory tradition in Germany, industries see little distinction between the compulsion of voluntary agreements and traditional regulations" (European Commission, 1996).
   
   - Environmental agreements or negotiated agreements are alternative terms used by those who point out that agreements are by definition voluntary or that an agreement which involves sanctions (e.g. implicit threat of regulations) is not, by definition, voluntary.
   
             Parties to a joint government-industry agreement may be any level of government authorities (national, regional, and local), individual companies or business organizations on behalf of industry sectors. The agreements may have general, qualitative goals (e.g. continuous improvement) or specific quantitative targets relative to previous performance (e.g. reduction of carbon dioxide emissions to 1990 levels by 2000) or absolute goals (CFC phase-outs, zero emissions). Currently popular as a part of a wider strategy to meet international climate change commitments, like other voluntary initiatives, joint government-industry agreements are being used to tackle a wide range of environmental issues, which may be:
   
   - industry-specific (e.g. automobile, chemical, iron and steel, etc.)
   
   - medium-specific (e.g. to reduce air emissions, water discharges, landfill, etc.)
   
   - integral and cross-sector (e.g. energy conservation and efficiency, phasing-out specific substances, producer take-back responsibility, etc.)
   
             While industry commits to meeting the targets and methods agreed upon, government commitments may include:
   
   - postponing new legislature or regulatory measures
   
   - providing information, incentives, technical assistance and public recognition removing market barriers preventing cost effective, etc.

9. WHAT ARE THIRD-PARTY VOLUNTARY INITIATIVES?
   
   One common characteristic of the first three categories of voluntary initiatives is the limited role of parties other than industry and government. The role of non-governmental organizations, public groups and trade unions in industry, government and joint government/industry initiatives is often limited to an advisory one, and third parties are sometimes left wondering whether their views were taken into account at all. Yet to reduce the free rider potential of voluntary initiatives, both industry and government recognize the need for continued public understanding and vigilance.
   
             Voluntary initiatives which are developed and run by non-governmental organizations are few in number, and as equally diverse as the other categories of voluntary initiatives. Some may be ignored by industry altogether. But that does not mean that third party initiatives, particularly if they involve industry right from the beginning, cannot be as or even more influential than industry and government initiatives in changing industry behaviour. The ISO 14000 environmental management standards, for example, are gradually becoming an international market requirement, involving non-governmental standards associations in numerous countries. Social investment groups that apply environmental principles and criteria are also having an influential if subtle role in changing corporate behaviour (e.g. Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Societies Principles in the USA). And the UNEP Statement by Financial Institutions on the Environment and Sustainable Development and the Statement of Environmental Commitment by the Insurance Industry commits banking and insurance companies to incorporating environmentally sound practices into their operations. Trade unions and employers have also come to agreements about access to workplace information and how it will be used and disseminated.

10. What is the current status of voluntary initiatives?
    
    Any voluntary initiative that leads to real environmental improvements and that helps to meet global sustainable development challenges need to be encouraged and leadership companies, industry associations, governments, and non-governmental organizations applauded. But current gaps and weaknesses in voluntary initiatives still undermine their real potential in helping to meet global sustainable development challenges. In particular, the following key issues need to be adequately taken into account for significant progress to be made over the coming years:
    
    - industry initiatives: While a few industry associations in some sectors have taken the first steps to adopt voluntary initiatives to improve their environmental performance, many more have not, including those which have some of the most significant impacts on the environment. Of those that have taken significant steps, most remain only good intentions, lacking any real implementation by many companies or any real measurement of environmental results, or any real method of publicly proving that they are working.
    
    - joint industry-government agreements: Only a few, mostly European governments are experimenting with this type of voluntary initiative. While many such agreements now include specific targets, time frames, monitoring and reporting requirements, and possible sanctions in the event of non-compliance, many still fail to institutionalize a role for non-industry, non-government parties that would demonstrate to public opinion leaders that such voluntary initiatives are working, and not, as is often criticized, simply postponing legislation and regulatory efforts.
    
    - proving environmental effectiveness: Voluntary initiatives cannot become a publicly legitimate policy tool until they are proven to be environmentally effective. This implies the ongoing involvement of all stakeholders (including those that can articulate public concerns, real or perceived), monitoring of company implementation, measurement of tangible environmental results, and public communication (progress being made, shortcomings being corrected, areas of non-compliance or sanctions being applied, etc.). Yet most voluntary initiatives still fail to meet most of these basic requirements.
    
    - small and medium-sized enterprises: The vast majority of small and medium sized enterprises lie outside the effective reach of most voluntary initiatives, although SMEs often account for a significant portion of economic activity and environmental impacts of many industries and countries. A priority needs to be set in quickly multiplying the few known successful SME voluntary initiatives.
    
    - global sustainable development: Most voluntary initiatives focus on environmental improvements. In the future, voluntary initiatives need to incorporate the more global meaning of sustainable development and responsible entrepreneurship, combining environmental performance and economic prosperity with social justice.
    
              Two last points need to be emphasized in any discussion of voluntary initiatives:
    
    - continuing need for a regulatory framework: Voluntary initiatives are not a panacea for sustainable development and they cannot be effective if they not backed up by a sound government regulatory and policy framework that sets and enforces discharge and emission limits and undermines the free-rider effect of voluntary initiatives.
    
    - international issues: The global demands of sustainable development involve two key international requirements: a) voluntary initiatives need to be used to help meet international conventions as well as national or local requirements and, b) experience with voluntary initiatives needs to be shared internationally to enable other countries and industry sectors to benefit from success stories and leapfrog lessons learnt.

11. WHAT USEFUL GUIDELINES AND STUDIES ARE AVAILABLE?
    
    1. UNEP DTIE, Guidelines on Voluntary Industry Codes of Conduct for the Environment, Technical Report No 40, 1988. Contact: UNEP IE, 39-43 quai André-Citroën, 75739 Paris Cedex 15, France. Fax: (+33-1) 44 37 14 74. Email: nbennet@unep.fr
    
    2. UNEP DTIE and US EPA, Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The Role of Voluntary Programmemes, 1997. Contact: UNEP DTIE or US EPA, Atmospheric Pollution Prevention Division, 401 M Street, SW (MC 6202J), Washington, D.C. 20460. Fax: +1-202 565 2134. http://www.epa.gov/appd.html
    
    3. UNEP DTIE Environmental Codes of Conduct for Tourism. Technical Report No 29, 1994. Contact: UNEP DTIE, 39-43 quai André-Citroën, 75739 Paris Cedex 15, France. Fax: (+33-1) 44 37 14 74.
    
    4. International Energy Agency, Voluntary Actions for Energy-Related CO2 Abatement, 1997.
    
    5. European Commission DG III, Study on Voluntary Agreements concluded between Industry and Public Authorities in the Field of the Environment, January 1997.
    
    6. United States Department of Energy, A Typology of Voluntary Agreements Used in Energy and Environmental Policy, January 1998 (draft). Contact: Jeff Dowd, US Dept. of Energy /PO-62, 1000 Independence Ave, SW, Washington, D.C. 20585. Fax: (1-202) 598-4447. Email: jeff.dowd@hq.doe.gov
    
    7. Centre d'économie industrielle, Les engagements volontaires de l'industrie dans le domaine de l'environnement: nature et diversité, June 1997. Contact: CEI, 60 bd Saint-Michel, 75272 Paris Cedex 06, France. Fax: (+33-1) 44 07 10 46. Email: cerna@cc.ensmp.fr
    
    8. New Directions Group, Criteria and Principles for the Use of Voluntary or Non-Regulatory Initiatives to Achieve Environmental Policy Objectives, November 1997. Paul Griss, NDG, 140 Benchlands Terrace, Canmore, Alberta, T1W 1G2, Canada. Fax: (+1-403) 678-9414. Email: pgris@ns.expertcanmore.net

Environmental Agreements: the European Commission's policy and programme

Peter Dröll,Industry, DG XI, European Commission, rue de la Loi 200, B-1049 Brussels, Belgium

Abstract

   The European Commission has prepared guidelines on the effective use of Environmental Agreements. These guidelines aim to increase the transparency and credibility of such agreements - in particular through publication of the agreements, the setting of clear targets, and reliable monitoring. There is potential for Environmental Agreements between the EC and European industry. When more experience has been gained, the Community institutions will need to agree on their respective roles in the negotiation and conclusion of agreements. The Community also seeks to broaden the option for Member States to use Environmental Agreements to implement environmental Directives.

Résumé

   La Commission européenne a rédigé des lignes directrices pour l'application efficace des Accords sur l'environnement, qui visent à renforcer la transparence et la crédibilité de ces accords, notamment par leur publication, la définition d'objectifs clairs et l'instauration d'un contrôle fiable. De tels accords pourraient être conclus entre la Commission européenne et l'industrie européenne. Quand elles auront un peu plus d'expérience dans ce domaine, les institutions de la Communauté devront se mettre d'accord sur leur rôle respectif dans la négociation et la signature des Accords. La Communauté s'efforce également de faciliter l'utilisation des Accords sur l'environnement comme instruments d'application des directives relatives à l'environnement.

Resumen

   La Comisión Europea ha elaborado una serie de líneas directrices para aplicar de forma más eficaz los Acuerdos Medioambientales. Su cometido es favorecer la transparencia y la credibilidad de estos acuerdos, mediante su publicación, el establecimiento de objetivos claros y una evaluación continua fiable. Las perspectivas de acuerdo entre la Comunidad Europea y su industria son muy favorables. A medida que se vaya ganando experiencia, las instituciones comunitarias tendrán que definir sus respectivas funciones en la negociación y la conclusión de los acuerdos. La CE se propone ofrecer a los Estados Miembros la adopción de acuerdos medioambientales como medio de aplicación de sus Directivas medioambientales.

Business makes the case for voluntary initiatives

C. George Miller, former President, Mining Association of Canada, 1105-350 Sparks Street, Ottawa, Ontario K1R 7S8, Canada

Abstract

   Voluntary initiatives can provide business with new market opportunities while at the same time aiming at environmental protection. They can also help create partnership and trust between governments and the private sector. Unlike command and control policies, which can be inflexible and unduly costly, voluntary agreements encourage business (in the developing and developed world) to unleash its creative talents and move forward. Especially in the climate and energy field, voluntary initiatives have the potential to strengthen national and international actions to mitigate climate change effects.

Résumé

  Les initiatives volontaires permettent aux entreprises d'atteindre simultanément deux objectifs : trouver de nouveaux débouchés et contribuer à la protection de l'environnement. Elles peuvent aussi aider à instaurer le partenariat et la confiance entre pouvoirs publics et secteur privé. Contrairement aux politiques de réglementation autoritaires, souvent rigides et inutilement coûteuses, les engagements volontaires encouragent les entreprises (dans les pays en développement comme dans les pays développés) à libérer leur potentiel créatif et à aller de l'avant. Dans le domaine du climat et de l'énergie en particulier, les initiatives volontaires pourraient être un moyen efficace de renforcer l'action nationale et internationale pour limiter les effets du changement climatique.

Resumen

   Las iniciativas voluntarias son susceptibles de proporcionar a las empresas nuevas oportunidades de mercado, al tiempo que protegen el medio ambiente. Además, favorecen el entendimiento y las asociaciones entre el gobierno y el sector privado. Contrariamente a las políticas imperativas y de control -demasiado inflexibles e infundadamente costosas-, fomentan la creatividad de las empresas de países desarrollados y en vías de desarrollo, y les dan un nuevo impulso. Destacan, asimismo, por su capacidad para reforzar las acciones nacionales e internacionales destinadas a mitigar los efectos del cambio climático, sobre todo cuando se aplican al ámbito del clima y la energía.

Responsible action or public relations? NGO perspectives on voluntary initiatives

Jeffrey Barber, Executive Director, Integrative Strategies Forum, 1612 K Street, NW, Suite 600, Washington, D.C. 20006, USA

Abstract

   NGOs tend to be highly sceptical of industry's promotion of voluntary initiatives, especially when they appear to be used to justify dismantling regulations or to prevent independent monitoring and evaluation. In addition, NGOs point to a serious credibility gap due to a lack of information or of multi-stakeholder participation. Actions to reduce the credibility gap and improve the effectiveness of voluntary initiatives would include creating greater transparency, allowing independent verification, inclusiveness, internalization of sustainability values, and complementary use of an enabling regulatory framework.

Résumé

   Les ONG sont souvent sceptiques quant à la volonté de l'industrie de promouvoir les initiatives volontaires, en particulier quand elle les invoque pour justifier la suppression de la règlementation ou pour empêcher les contrôles et évaluations par des organismes indépendants. Les ONG dénoncent, en outre, un manque grave de crédibilité dû à une information insuffisante ou à un processus de consultation défaillant. Pour résoudre ce problème de crédibilité et améliorer l'efficacité des initiatives volontaires, il faut instaurer une plus grande transparence, autoriser les contrôles par des organismes indépendants, impliquer tous les acteurs, internaliser les valeurs de durabilité, et recourir, en complément, à un cadre réglementaire d'habilitation.

Resumen

   Las ONG tienden a mostrarse escépticas ante la promoción de las iniciativas voluntarias por parte de la industria y, en particular, cuando éstas sirven para justificar regulaciones obsoletas o para evitar la evaluación y la monitorización independientes. Su falta de credibilidad se debe ante todo a la información deficiente y al exceso de participantes. Para solventarlo y mejorar la eficacia de las iniciativas voluntarias, hay que favorecer la transparencia y la inclusión, permitir la verificación independiente, desarrollar internamente los valores de sostenibilidad y crear una estructura reguladora que permita su aplicación.

The ICC Business Charter for Sustainable Development and other voluntary initiatives: more relevant than ever in a globalizing world

Norine Kennedy, Vice President, Environmental Affairs, United States Council for International Business (USCIB), 1212 Avenue of the Americas, New York, New York 10036-1689, USA

Abstract

  Any company, regardless of its size, sector or location, can make significant contributions to sustainable development by improving internal environmental, health and safety management. The International Chamber of Commerce's Business Charter for Sustainable Development emphasizes the introduction and development of environmental management practices and systems within enterprises as an essential contribution to sustainable development. This article argues that voluntary initiatives (VIs), including principle-based VIs like the ICC Charter, are both pertinent and successful in the contexts of globalization, activist pressures, and advances in corporate environmental management.

Résumé

   Quelle que soit sa taille, son secteur ou sa localisation, toute entreprise peut, par une meilleure gestion interne de l'environnement, de l'hygiène et de la sécurité, contribuer de manière non négligeable au développement durable. La Charte pour un développement durable de la Chambre de commerce internationale insiste sur le fait que, pour contribuer au développement durable, il est important que les entreprises élaborent et mettent en úuvre des pratiques et systèmes de gestion de l'environnement. L'article soutient que les initiatives volontaires, telles que la Charte de la CCI, sont à la fois opportunes et efficaces face à la mondialisation, à la pression des militants écologistes et aux progrès de la gestion de l'environnement dans les entreprises.

Resumen

  Cualquier empresa, independientemente de su envergadura, sector o emplazamiento, puede contribuir al desarrollo sostenible mediante la optimización de su gestión ambiental, sanitaria y de seguridad. La Business Charter for Sustainable Development (Carta Empresarial para el Desarrollo Sostenible) de la Cámara Internacional de Comercio (CIC), subraya la relevancia que tiene aplicar y desarrollar prácticas de gestión ambiental en las empresas, para lograr un desarrollo duradero. También se señala que tanto las iniciativas voluntarias independientes como las concertadas (i.e.: Carta de la CIC), han demostrado su éxito y pertinencia frente a la mundialización, la presión de activistas y los avances en gestión ambiental conjunta.

Environmental agreements in the Netherlands: sharing the responsibility for sustainable industrial development

Maarten de Hoog, Coordinator, Target Group Policy for Industry, Ministry of the Environment/IPC 650, Directorate for Industry and Consumer Policy, PO Box 30945, 2500 GX The Hague, the Netherlands

Abstract

   Industry and government working together can achieve ambitious environmental quality targets using cooperative agreements. Such agreements can be more effective than a command and control approach provided they stimulate the innovative capacities of the industries involved. Governments cannot require companies to undertake far-reaching innovations when they grant permits, and it is not in the nature of regulations to prescribe changes unless these can be achieved with certainty. Companies have a much better understanding of their own technological possibilities than do regulatory authorities. For cooperative agreements to be successful, however, industry needs to modify its traditional attitudes and adopt environmental policies that will benefit all parties.

Résumé

 La Commission européenne a rédigé des lignes directrices pour l'application efficace des Accords sur l'environnement, qui visent à renforcer la transparence et la crédibilité de ces accords, notamment par leur publication, la définition d'objectifs clairs et l'instauration d'un contrôle fiable. De tels accords pourraient être conclus entre la Commission européenne et l'industrie européenne. Quand elles auront un peu plus d'expérience dans ce domaine, les institutions de la Communauté devront se mettre d'accord sur leur rôle respectif dans la négociation et la signature des Accords. La Communauté s'efforce également de faciliter l'utilisation des Accords sur l'environnement comme instruments d'application des directives relatives à l'environnement.

Resumen

 La Comisión Europea ha elaborado una serie de líneas directrices para aplicar de forma más eficaz los Acuerdos Medioambientales. Su cometido es favorecer la transparencia y la credibilidad de estos acuerdos, mediante su publicación, el establecimiento de objetivos claros y una evaluación continua fiable. Las perspectivas de acuerdo entre la Comunidad Europea y su industria son muy favorables. A medida que se vaya ganando experiencia, las instituciones comunitarias tendrán que definir sus respectivas funciones en la negociación y la conclusión de los acuerdos. La CE se propone ofrecer a los Estados Miembros la adopción de acuerdos medioambientales como medio de aplicación de sus Directivas medioambientales.

The power of partnerships in Canada: how industry and government work together for economic growth and a cleaner environment

Linda L. Dunn, Senior Environmental Advisor, Environmental Affairs Branch, Industry Sector, Industry Canada, 235 Queen Street, 7th Floor East, Ottawa, Ontario K1A0H5, Canada

Abstract

  The use of voluntary non-regulatory initiatives (VNRI's) in Canada, in combination with a judicious mix of instruments including a regulatory framework and economic instruments, has brought about a significant change in corporate culture and behaviour. As individual companies and the associations representing them encourage environmental leadership, responsible entrepreneurship becomes a reality. Two programmes, the Accelerated Reduction/Elimination of Toxics (ARET) and the National Packaging Protocol (NaPP), are examined in detail. While these programmes differ significantly in their objectives, goals and targets, as well as the environmental issues they address, both have been successfully implemented for the purpose of achieving the highest level of environmental quality at less cost than that envisioned by regulations with increased and unforeseen benefits.

Résumé

  Au Canada, des initiatives volontaires, assorties d'une panoplie d'outils judicieux, parmi lesquels un cadre réglementaire et des instruments économiques, ont permis une formidable évolution de la culture et des comportements dans les entreprises. En encourageant l'excellence dans le domaine de l'environnement, les entreprises et les associations qui les représentent mettent en pratique le concept d'entrepreneur responsable. Deux programmes, l'ARET (Réduction/élimination accélérées des produits toxiques) et le NaPP (Protocole national sur l'emballage) sont ici présentés en détail. Bien que très différents par leurs objectifs, leurs buts, leur cible, et les problèmes d'environnement qu'ils abordent, ces programmes ont permis d'atteindre un niveau optimal de qualité de l'environnement, à un coût moins élevé que ne le permettrait la réglementation, avec en outre des avantages supplémentaires imprévus.

Resumen

   Las iniciativas voluntarias Ano-reguladoras@ (VNRI), combinadas con una serie de instrumentos -desde infraestructuras reguladoras hasta instrumentos económicos-, han conmocionado a la cultura y al comportamiento corporativo canadienses. La responsabilidad empresarial se consolida, a medida que las compañías y las asociaciones que las representan promueven la conciencia ecológica. Aunque los objetivos primarios y finales del programa de Reducción o Eliminación Acelerada de Productos Tóxicos (ARET) y el Protocolo Nacional de Empaquetado (NaPP), difieren tanto como sus ámbitos medioambientales de aplicación, ambos han contribuido a optimizar la calidad ambiental y resultan menos costosos que otras regulaciones, más ambiciosas, pero de resultados imprevisibles.

Sharing responsibility: co-regulatory policy instruments as a means of achieving industrial sustainable development in South Africa and other developing countries

Jonathon Hanks, Group Environmental Adviser, AECI Limited, Private Bag X21, Gallo Manor 2052, South Africa

Abstract

  Should environmental policy makers in developing countries seek to adopt "self-regulatory" and "co-regulatory" policy instruments? This article identifies a number of institutional and procedural conditions that need to be met if they are to be introduced in countries where there has not been a strong tradition of environmental enforcement. Using South Africa as a case study, it is suggested that sufficient institutional conditions for the establishment of negotiated agreements may already exist or may be appropriately developed

Résumé

  Les responsables politiques des pays en développement devraient-ils adopter des instruments d'" autoréglementation " et de " co-réglementation " ? L'article recense les conditions institutionnelles et procédurales qui doivent être remplies pour introduire ces outils dans les pays où la législation sur l'environnement n'est pas une tradition solidement établie. Se référant au cas de l'Afrique du Sud, l'auteur suggère que les conditions institutionnelles pour l'instauration de conventions négociées sont peut-être déjà réunies, ou pourraient être opportunément créées.

Resumen

   Deberían adoptar directrices de Aautoregulación@ o Acorregulación@ los responsables de las políticas medioambientales de los países en vías de desarrollo? Este artículo determina las condiciones institucionales necesarias y los procedimientos que los países carentes de práctica en materia de protección ambiental han de seguir para poder adoptarlas. Basándose en el modelo de Sudáfrica, el artículo concluye que algunos de estos países podrían reunir de antemano las condiciones apropiadas para aplicar acuerdos ya negociados, y otros están en disposición de desarrollarlas.

The role of voluntary agreements in Germany

Klaus Kabelitz, Ruhrgas AG, Aktiengesellschaft, Huttropstrasse 60, D-45138, Essen, Germany

Abstract

   Voluntary agreements (VAs) are emerging as a new instrument of environmental policy, as they have advantages over traditional policy measures. In particular, they are more efficient economically. German industry's 1996 voluntary climate protection agreement involving numerous industrial associations, presumably the most extensive in the world, is aimed at reducing CO2 emissions significantly by 2005. Implementation of this VA is monitored annually by an independent institute. Globally, VAs should be interlinked with joint implementation and emission trading, thus making international climate protection policy more flexible and cost-effective.

Résumé

   Grâce aux avantages qu'ils présentent sur les mesures de règlementation traditionnelles, les engagements volontaires s'imposent peu à peu comme de nouveaux instruments de la politique environnementale. En particulier, ils sont économiquement plus efficaces. L'engagement volontaire sur le climat, pris en 1996 par l'industrie allemande en association avec de nombreuses associations professionnelles, est probablement le plus important du genre dans le monde. Il a pour but une réduction massive des émissions de CO2 d'ici 2005 et sa mise en úuvre est contrôlée tous les ans par un organisme indépendant. A l'échelle mondiale, les engagements volontaires devraient aller de pair avec une mise en úuvre conjointe et l'échange des doits d'émission, pour que la politique internationale sur le climat soit plus souple et plus efficace économiquement parlant.

Resumen

   Los acuerdos voluntarios (VAs) están reemplazando progresivamente a las políticas tradicionales, por sus ventajas (sobre todo en el plano económico) sobre éstas. El acuerdo de la industria alemana sobre protección medioambiental de 1996, al que se adhirieron numerosas asociaciones industriales, es posiblemente el más amplio del mundo. Se propone reducir la emisión de CO2 a gran escala, para el año 2005. Un instituto independiente se encarga de verificar anualmente que el acuerdo se cumple. En el ámbito mundial, los acuerdos voluntarios deberían compaginarse con actividades coordinadas y la negociación de emisiones, para así optimizar y rentabilizar la política internacional de protección climática.

Responsible Care® in action

Hugo Lever, Council Secretary, International Council of Chemical Associations (ICCA), Avenue E. Van Nieuwenhuyse, 41160 Brussels, Belgium

Abstract

   Responsible Care® is the worldwide chemical industry programme for continuous improvement of safety, health and environmental performance. This voluntary industry initiative plays a major role in increasing efficient use of resources, reducing risk, minimizing wastes, and protecting the quality of the environment. Responsible Care has succeeded through its inherently flexible and innovative responses to these ever more demanding challenges. This article describes the organizational structure and some of the achievements of Responsible Care®.

Résumé

   Responsible Care® est le programme mondial élaboré par l'industrie chimique pour améliorer continuellement les performances des entreprises en matière de sécurité, d'hygiène et d'environnement. Cette initiative volontaire a permis une utilisation plus efficace des ressources, une réduction des risques, une diminution des déchets et une amélioration de la qualité de l'environnement. Responsible Care doit son succès à ses réponses flexibles et innovantes à des défis sans cesse plus difficiles. L'article décrit l'organisation de ce programme et donne quelques exemples des résultats qu'il permet d'obtenir.

Resumen

   Responsible Care® es un programa internacional para la industria química, destinado a mejorar de forma progresiva las condiciones sanitarias, medioambientales y de seguridad de esa industria. Esta iniciativa voluntaria es un factor determinante para el aumento de la productividad de los recursos, la reducción del riesgo y los desechos, y la protección de la calidad ambiental. Gracias a su flexibilidad y a sus innovadoras respuestas, el programa tiene capacidad para resolver los difíciles retos actuales. En el presente artículo se describen la estructura y algunos de los logros alcanzados gracias a Responsible Care®.

The chemical industry's Responsible Care® programme viewed from an international trade union perspective

Reg Green,Health, Safety and Environment Officer, International Federation of Chemical, Energy, Mine and General Workers' Unions, ICEM, Avenue Emile de Béco 109, 1050 Brussels, Belgium

Abstract

   In many countries there is reduced government commitment to command and control regulation of industry and increasing promotion of voluntary industry initiatives. Employees and communities are therefore concerned that safety and environmental protection are being compromised. A recent global survey was carried out to determine the nature and extent of the knowledge workers and their trade union representatives have of the chemical industry's Responsible Care® programme, and the degree of their active involvement in the programme. Following up on the survey, this article makes the point that, given the vested interests involved, trust in Responsible Care® and other voluntary industry initiatives must be earned rather than simply demanded, and that credibility must be demonstrated rather than asserted.

Résumé

   Dans de nombreux pays, on assiste à un recul de la réglementation autoritaire de l'industrie par l'Etat, au profit des initiatives volontaires. Or, les salariés et les collectivités craignent que la sécurité et la protection de l'environnement ne se trouvent, de ce fait, reléguées au second plan. Une enquête mondiale a été récemment menée pour déterminer dans quelle mesure les ouvriers et leurs délégués syndicaux connaissent le programme Responsible Care® de l'industrie chimique, ce qu'ils en savent et quel est leur degré de participation à ce programme. Faisant suite à cette enquête, l'article montre que, compte tenu des intérêts en jeu, il vaut mieux susciter - plutôt qu'exiger - la confiance dans le programme Responsible Care® et les autres initiatives volontaires de l'industrie, et prouver - plutôt qu'affirmer - leur bien-fondé.

Resumen

   Muchos gobiernos no han suscrito compromisos serios para dirigir y coordinar la reglamentación industrial y las iniciativas voluntarias de las empresas, cada vez más populares. Esto ha suscitado la preocupación de empleados y comunidades, quienes ven su propia seguridad y la del medio ambiente amenazadas. Un sondeo internacional reciente recoge el tipo y el grado de conocimientos de los trabajadores y sus representantes sindicales sobre el programa Responsible Care® para la industria química, así como su participación directa en él. Según los resultados del mismo, se concluye que, a tenor de los intereses velados que comporta, tanto el programa como otras iniciativas voluntarias, han de ganarse la confianza de sus usuarios en lugar de exigirla y demostrar su credibilidad en vez de presuponerla.

Research initiative on industrial transformation launched by IHDP

Larry R. Kohler, Executive Director, International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP), Walter-Flex-Str. 3, 53113 Bonn, Germany

Abstract

  This article focuses on the results and progress to date of the International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP) project on Industrial Transformation (IHDP-IT), an international initiative for research focusing on mechanisms for transforming the present industrial system into a sustainable one. The IHDP-IT project research analyses industrial transformation from three perspectives: macrosystems, including industrial, financial, and physical systems; the production system; and the consumption system.

Résumé

   L'article présente les résultats et l'état d'avancement du projet d'adaptation industrielle, élaboré par l'International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change (IHDP), une initiative internationale pour identifier des mécanismes permettant de transformer le système industriel actuel en un système durable. Le projet IHDP-IT analyse l'adaptation industrielle sous trois angles : les macrosystèmes, notamment les systèmes industriels, financiers et physiques ; les modes de production ; et les modes de consommation.

Resumen

   El reciclado o la reutilización de los residuos mineros podría ser la solución adecuada para el problema de la contaminación causada por la explotación minera. La reutilización, que en la mayoría de los casos implica la recogida de los residuos, sirve para separar el mineral con valor comercial del que contiene más agentes contaminantes (susceptibles de generar soluciones ácidas, ricas en metales pesados). Esta selección no debe limitarse a los casos en que la comercialización de los productos extraidos cubran todos los costes del tratamiento. De hecho, este tipo de práctica reduce considerablemente el coste global de la seguridad en el tratamiento de residuos y de la protección de la población, que suele ser muy elevado en las regiones de importante tradición minera. Lo que se procura por todos los medios es reducir este coste, o lograr posibles fuentes de financiación. En definitiva, corresponde a las autoridades administrativas hacerse cargo de este problema medioambiental y encontrar la solución adecuada para minimizar los residuos, previa eliminación de los agentes contaminantes, de la forma más económica posible.

Evaluating companies' environmental reports in Germany

Jens Clausen, senior researcher, Ecological Economics Research Institute (IÖW), Hausmannstr. 9-10, 30159 Hannover, Germany

Klaus Fichter, IÖW, Giesebrechtstr. 13, 10629 Berlin, Germany

Abstract

   A first ranking of companies' environmental reports in Germany was done in 1994. Two subsequent rankings have been carried out, in 1995 and 1998, to determine the extent to which the number of environmental reports and statements has increased and whether their quality has improved. Based on the critera used, the quality of companies' reporting has been shown to differ considerably. While the overall quality has improved, most reports share a number of important shortcomings.

Résumé

   Un premier classement des rapports sur l'environnement produits par les entreprises allemandes a été effectué en 1994. Deux autres ont suivi, en 1995 et 1998, pour déterminer si le nombre des rapports et bilans sur l'environnement avait augmenté et si leur qualité s'était améliorée. D'après les critères employés, il apparaît que la qualité des rapports varie considérablement d'une entreprise à l'autre. Si dans l'ensemble on constate une amélioration, on relève toutefois des lacunes majeures qui sont les mêmes dans la plupart des rapports.

Resumen

   En Alemania, se elaboró una clasificación de informes de distintas compañías sobre medio ambiente, en 1994. Se repitió la experiencia en 1995 y 1998, para determinar si el número y la calidad de los informes y las declaraciones había mejorado. De acuerdo con los criterios empleados, se detectó una gran diferencia de calidad en los informes de las compañías. Podremos observar cómo, aunque la calidad general es creciente, la mayoría de los informes denotan una serie de defectos comunes.

Développer un programme volontaire d'éco-efficacité de l'énergie pour lutter contre l'effet de serre : l'exemple d'Usinor

René-François Bizec, Directeur de l'Environnement, Usinor, Immeuble Pacific, 13, cours Valmy - TSA 10001, La Défense 7, 92070 La Défense, cedex, France

Abstract

  In line with its preventive policy, the French steel Federation (FFA) has committed itself to a 15% reduction of CO2 emissions and a 10% reduction of total emissions by the year 2000 based on 1990 figures. This voluntary agreement is representative of Usinor's proactive approach to environmental protection, in the context of sustainable development. The story behind the signing of a voluntary agreement by the FFA, and the agreement's basic principles, are set out in this article, which als

Résumé

  C'est dans le contexte d'une politique de précaution que la Fédération Française de l'Acier (FFA) s'est engagée à réduire les émissions spécifiques de CO2 de 15 % et les émissions totales de 10 % d'ici l'an 2000 par rapport à 1990. L'engagement volontaire de la FFA illustre la démarche proactive d'Usinor en matière d'environnement, qui s'inscrit dans la perspective d'un développement durable. L'article dresse l'historique de l'engagement volontaire signé par la FFA, en donne les principes généraux et conclut sur les autres voies à explorer pour la mise en oeuvre d'un développement durable.

Resumen

   La Federación Francesa del Acero (FFA), a tenor de su política preventiva, se ha comprometido a reducir, para el año 2000, la emisión específica de CO2 en un 15% y en 10 % las emisiones totales, con respecto a las cifras de 1990. Este compromiso voluntario atestigua la firme voluntad de Usinor de proteger activamente el medio ambiente, en la línea de un desarrollo sostenible. El presente artículo da fe del empeño de la FFA hasta la firma del acuerdo voluntario, recoge los principios generales de éste y concluye proponiendo vías, aún por explorar, que conducen a un desarrollo duradero.

Iniciativas voluntarias de gestión ambiental en Colombia: participación de la Asociación Nacional de Industriales (ANDI)

Angela Gómez Rodríguez, Asistente de la Gerencia de Asuntos Ambientales de la Asociación Nacional de Industriales de Colombia (ANDI), Carrera 13 N° 26-45, piso 6, Bogotá, Colombia.

Abstract

  In the 1990s a number of environmental protection initiatives took place in Colombia. These began as an independent voluntary movement involving several groups (particularly industrial ones), coordinated by two industry associations, ANDI and Acoplásticos, as well as the Colombian Security Council (CCS). These groups supported international developments in environmental management, notably the Responsible Care programme. Concerted actions have increased since 1994-95, backed up - if somewhat timidly - by the public authorities. Even taking into account its limitations, the progress made so far in Colombia might serve as a model to follow on the path to sustainable development.

Résumé

   Les années 90 témoignent des efforts entrepris par la Colombie pour la protection de l'environnement. L'engagement colombien fut, à l'origine, un mouvement indépendant et volontaire de certains groupes sociaux et surtout industriels, coordonnés par les associations industrielles ANDI et Acoplásticos, ainsi que par le Conseil colombien de Sécurité (CCS), qui adhéra au processus international de gestion de l'environnement, notamment le programme " Responsible Care ". A partir de 1994-1995, les actions de concertation se sont multipliées, soutenues par une participation - quoique timide - des pouvoirs publics. Néanmoins les progrès de la Colombie constituent un modèle à suivre sur la voie du développement durable.

Resumen

   La década de los 90 es testigo del esfuerzo colombiano en la protección del medio ambiente. El compromiso nace como movimiento voluntario independiente de grupos sociales y, sobre todo, empresariales que, coordinados por la ANDI, Acoplásticos y el CCS, se adscriben a directrices internacionales de gestión ambiental, como el Proceso de Responsabilidad Integral. A partir de 1994-95, se multiplican los convenios de concertación, apoyados por una participación cada vez más activa, aunque todavía deficiente, de las autoridades. A pesar de ello, los avances de Colombia constituyen un modelo a seguir en la consecución de un desarrollo duradero.

Energy efficient and environmentally sound industrial technologies in Asia

Part I: Assessment of the economic viability of technological options

B. Mohanty,* C. Visvanathan* and G. Senanayake**
* School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology, PO Box 4, Pathumthani, Thailand
** Industrial Services Bureau, North Western Provinces, Kurunegala, Sri Lanka

Abstract

  This article describes some technological changes that could be introduced in energy-intensive and polluting industries in China, India, the Philippines and Sri Lanka. Among the factors that need to be considered when a new energy efficient and environmentally sound industrial technology is chosen are the state of existing technologies, up-front costs, operating costs, efficiency of the equipment, and the level of in-house skill available. To make sure a new technology is economically viable, a number of external factors also need to be considered: the presence of rational energy pricing, whether there are appropriate environmental regulations and incentive regimes in place, the general financial environment, the transparency of the economic system, etc.

Résumé

   L'article décrit quelques-unes des modifications qui pourraient être apportées aux industries polluantes et énergivores de la Chine, de l'Inde, des Philippines et du Sri Lanka. Avant de choisir une nouvelle technologie industrielle économe en énergie et respectueuse de l'environnement, il convient de considérer l'état des technologies existantes, la mise de fonds initiale, les coûts d'exploitation, l'efficacité de l'équipement, et le niveau de qualification du personnel. Pour qu'une nouvelle technologie soit économiquement viable, il faut aussi prendre en compte certains facteurs externes : l'existence d'un système rationnel de fixation des prix de l'énergie, l'existence de règlements environnementaux et de mesures incitatives adéquates, le contexte financier général, la transparence du système économique, etc.

Resumen

   Este artículo describe algunas modificaciones tecnológicas que podrían aplicarse a las industrias de alta producción energética y muy contaminantes de China, India, Filipinas y Sri Lanka. Los factores a tener en cuenta para elegir una nueva tecnología de ahorro energético y optimización medioambiental, son: el estado de la tecnología vigente, los costes derivados y operativos, la eficacia del material disponible y el grado de competencia interna. Para cerciorarse de la viabilidad económica, también hay que observar si el precio de la energía es el adecuado, si existen reglamentos sobre medio ambiente e incentivos, cual es el entorno financiero general, si el sistema económico es propicio, etc.

Emissions reduction activities and the Clean Development Mechanism: key unresolved issues

Anilla Cherian, Warren Weaver Fellow, Global Environment Division, The Rockefeller Foundation, 420 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10018, USA

Abstract

  The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol allows industrialized countries and countries with economies in transition to use the certified emissions reductions that accrue from CDM activities to comply with a certain part of their commitments to limit and reduce emissions. This article focuses on unresolved issues concerning implementation of emissions reduction activities undertaken within the CDM (for example, ambiguous language, discrepencies in the means of implementing various emissions reduction activities). There is a need for developing countries and their private sector entities to examine these important issues.

Résumé

   Le Mécanisme de développement propre (CDM) du Protocole de Kyoto permet aux pays industrialisés et aux pays en transition de comptabiliser les réductions d'émissions résultant de leurs activités de CDM dans le cadre de la limitation et de la réduction des émissions. L'article traite des problèmes non résolus posés par la mise en úuvre des activités de réduction des émissions dans le cadre du CDM (par exemple l'ambiguïté du langage et les divergences entre les modes de mise en úuvre des diverses activités de réduction des émissions). Il est indispensable que les pays en développement et leurs entreprises privées se penchent sur ces questions importantes

Resumen

   El Mecanismo para un Desarrollo Limpio (CDM) del Protocolo de Kyoto, permite a países industrializados y con economías en transición servirse de las reducciones de emisiones certificadas que emanan del CDM, para alcanzar las cuotas de contención y reducción de emisiones exigidas. Este artículo se centra en las actividades para la reducción de emisiones previstas por el CDM, que han fracasado por razones tales que la ambigüedad del lenguaje, o las discrepancias sobre la forma de aplicar dichas actividades. Los países desarrollados y sus entidades del sector privado deben examinar estos casos.

Cleaner brick production in India: a trans-sectoral initiative

Arun Kumar,* Geeta Vaidyanathan* and K.R. Lakshmikantan * Development Alternatives, B-32, Tara Crescent, Qutab Institutional Area, New Delhi, India

Abstract

  In India, where there is an extremely serious and fast-growing housing shortage, burnt bricks are the most popular building material (current demand is estimated at 55 billion bricks per year). The investigation of technologies to improve energy efficiency and achieve other environmental objectives has generally been lacking in the brick industry. The most promising method of decentralized burnt brick production, Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK) technology, was developed in China over the last three decades. Through changes in design features and operating procedures, environmental performance and product quality are being improved as this technology is introduced at Indian VSBK sites.

Résumé

   En Inde, où la pénurie de logements est extrêmement importante et ne cesse de s'aggraver, le matériau le plus employé pour la construction est la brique calcinée, dont la demande actuelle est estimée à 55 milliards d'unités par an. Or, il n'y a pratiquement pas eu de travaux de recherche pour améliorer le rendement énergétique et atteindre d'autres objectifs environnementaux dans ce secteur de l'industrie. La méthode de production décentralisée la plus prometteuse, la technologie des fours à cuve verticale (VSBK), a été mise au point en Chine au cours des trois dernières décennies. Des modifications de forme et du procédé de fabrication, lors de l'introduction de cette technologie en Inde, ont permis d'améliorer la qualité des produits et les résultats du point de vue de la protection de l'environnement

Resumen

   El material de construcción más popular de la India, donde la escasez de alojamiento es creciente y preocupante, es el ladrillo de alta cocción (la demanda actual asciende a 55 millones anuales). La industria del ladrillo no suele ser objeto de investigaciones tecnológicas para mejorar el consumo energético y aplicar otras medidas de protección ambiental. Durante las tres últimas décadas, China ha desarrollado el mejor método de producción descentralizada de estos ladrillos: el VSBK (Horno de chimenea vertical para ladrillos). Esta tecnología se está aplicando en centros VSBK de la India, mediante cambios de diseño y procedimientos operativos, y se observan ya mejoras de calidad ambientales y del producto.